Publications

Speaker, P.J. (2023). Economic comparison of the relative costs and efficiency of using Thermo Fisher Scientific RapidHIT™ ID System versus traditional DNA laboratory analysis. Working Paper. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/faculty_publications/3282/

Abstract: With the emergence of any new technology, economic questions arise regarding the efficacy of the new technology in comparison to existing analytical techniques. While the question of ultimate interest concerns the return on investment (ROI) of the new technology, that ROI requires both an evaluation of the net benefits of the technology and an examination of the costs to implement the technology. In this report, we examine the full-loaded cost structure of traditional DNA analysis using fiscal year 2021 data from Project FORESIGHT and compare the cost per sample with the price structure of the Thermo Fischer Scientific RapidHIT ID technology. The data indicates that a conservative comparison of the fully loaded costs for each technique leads to the conclusion that the RapidHIT ID technology is less expensive than traditional DNA analysis when sampling between 183 and 57,249 samples per year.

McAndrew, W. P., Speaker, P. J., & Houck, M. M. (2023). Forensic Science Management, 2019-2022. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100301

Abstract: This paper reviews and summarizes the forensic management literature from late 2019 to late 2022, covering laboratory strategic, tactical and operational decision-making, benchmarking, quality assurance, and managerial impacts from technological developments.

Ropero Miller, J. D., Mullen, L. D., Speaker, P. J., (2022). The Sentinel Role of Forensic Toxicology Laboratories to Identify and Act upon Emerging Drug Threats by Addressing Toxicology and Economic Demands. Forensic Science International: Synergy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100292

Abstract: The Comprehensive Opioid, Stimulant, and Substance Abuse Program (COSSAP) has helped to stem the extensive impacts from the growth in substance abuse. The COSSAP collaborates with jurisdictions to bring resources to bear to change the progression of abuse. This collaboration among public health and public safety takes time. In the interim, additional efforts, including faster recognition of the drug landscape through analytical surveillance and intelligence, as well as anticipation of needed changes are required.

Public health laboratories, forensic laboratories, medical examiners, and coroners each face greater demands. We address the question of whether the growing demands upon the services of these public sector facilities can be anticipated. If not anticipated, we explore how quickly trends can be realized and subsequent public health and safety changes can be made. Part of that exploration includes the role of each sector laboratory to provide some sentinel function to serve society. The evaluation includes an examination of costs and benefits in the competition for public funding.

Speaker, P.J. (2022). Advancements in Understanding the Cost-Effectiveness of Testing Sexual Assault Kits in Sexual Assault Kits and Reforming the Response to Rape, Lovell, R. & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. eds.

Abstract: The public good includes the provision of many types of services, but limited availability of funds to achieve these “goods.” The analysis of forensic evidence, including the DNA testing of a sexual assault kit (SAK), is one of the services competing for limited public funds. While there are admirable arguments in favor of funding the testing of sexual assault kits based on ethical, moral, and emotional grounds, the foundational economic problem of unlimited desires and limited funding requires that trade-offs be made. For each dollar spent testing a SAK, a dollar has been taken from some other activity. SAK testing competes with other forensic testing. It also competes with funding for the arts, infrastructure, and social welfare programs to name a few alternative uses of public funding. In this chapter, we examine the cost versus benefits associated with funding the testing of SAKs. We transform the associated costs and benefits into a measure of the return on investment (ROI) to society, which is directly comparable to alternative uses of public funding. The economic argument provides support for the moral and ethical arguments for the testing of SAKs.

Speaker, P. J., (2022). Prioritizing the Testing of Sexual Assault Kits. Sexual Assault Report.

Abstract: Crime laboratories face the same problem as do all participants in the economy: too few resources to meet seemingly unlimited needs. In every political jurisdiction, it becomes a matter for the justice system to prioritize cases and allocate resources to crime laboratories to meet those standards. Moral and ethical considerations influence the prioritization policies in any jurisdiction as do political views of the electorate. Objective measures can supplement the subjective criteria as jurisdictional priorities are determined and presented to the electorate as justification for decisions.

Speaker, P.J. & Wells, R. (2021). The Return on Investment from Rapid DNA Testing of Sexual Assault Kits: The Kentucky State Police Forensic Laboratory Experience. Medical Research Archives. https://doi.org/10.18103/mra.v9i11.2600

Abstract: The growing queue for DNA analysis in crime laboratories has prevented the analysis from providing investigative leads as turnaround time has grown, limiting the analytical results to a confirmatory role in the courtroom. Rapid DNA technology offers an opportunity to employ an automated system for the development of a DNA profile. The Rapid DNA technology permits a police booking station to take a buccal swab obtained from an arrestee, acquire a DNA profile, and test that profile against a DNA database, all while the arrestee remains in police custody during the booking process. Rapid DNA technologies are a capital-intensive system enabling sophisticated equipment designed for operation by individuals with limited technical training to provide investigative leads with immediate support. We present the testing of rapid DNA technology in a trial program conducted by the Kentucky State Police Forensic Laboratory. The Kentucky test confirms the efficacy of the rapid DNA testing as consistent with the findings from traditional laboratory testing. The economic analysis related to testing indicates that the time saving from the rapid DNA analysis yields benefits that far outweigh the costs from the change in technology.

Delgado, Y., Price, B.S., Speaker, P.J., Stoiloff, S.L. (2021). Forensic Intelligence: Data Analytics as the Bridge between Forensic Science and Investigation. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100162.

Abstract: Scientists should not play a role in investigations nor should investigators play a role in the scientific analyses. One way to bridge the relationship between the forensic scientist and the police investigator is through an Intelligence Analyst (IA) who is part of the forensic services operation. The IA offers the ability to walk between the role of scientist and law enforcement, receiving data after completion of scientific analyses and translating the information into actionable intelligence. The additional bridging and translating services represent a paradigm shift with increased emphasis on investigative contributions from forensic analysis. Forensic intelligence incorporates forensic data early in an investigation in a holistic case approach that incorporates possible datasets and information that could be relevant to the investigation. We present a brief review of the value added when an IA provides the bridge between the forensic laboratory and police investigators to enhance the use of forensic evidence.

Speaker, P.J. (2021). An Independent Evaluation of Laboratory Staffing Needs: Launching the Forensic Laboratory Workforce Calculator. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100137.

Abstract: The 2019 NIJ Report to Congress on the needs of the forensic science community highlighted the staffing deficit of forensic scientists by more than 900 positions. The Report emphasized the impact of the opioid crisis and the evolution of synthetic opioids on the demands for forensic laboratories. The resource drain attributable to the opioid crisis has filtered into all other areas of investigation as laboratories divert limited resources from other uses to meet the high demand in drug chemistry and toxicology from opioid abuse. We introduce the forensic laboratory workforce calculator, a tool that any forensic laboratory may use to evaluate their current personnel allocation and estimate any under- or over-staffing to meet current or estimated caseloads. The forensic laboratory workforce calculator is available free to any laboratory through the Forensic Technology Center of Excellence website.

Houck, M. M., Speaker, P.J. (2020). Project FORESIGHT: A Ten-Year Retrospective. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.08.005.

Abstract: Forensic service providers fulfill a fundamental role in a criminal justice system by providing scientific information that aids investigations and court proceedings. While the focus is often on the science aspect of these organizations, the provision is also of paramount importance. Historically, calls for more and better information about forensic laboratory performance (in essence, benchmarking) have gone unheard. Project FORESIGHT, created in 2008, filled this need through engagement with the forensic management community to build a needs-based process for providing operational data that can be used to enhance a laboratory’s performance. With over 10 years of industry data, Project FORESIGHT is the de facto standard for benchmarking forensic service provision.

Houck, M. M. (2019). FORESIGHT: Problems, Arguments, and Solutions. Forensic Science International: Synergy S2, S5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsisyn.2019.06.017.

Abstract: FORESIGHT, the global standard for forensic laboratory benchmarking, can benefit the forensic community, not just individual laboratories. With over a decade of data from more than 160 laboratories worldwide, the FORESIGHT Project can provide support for requesting resources. Using the opioid crisis and backlogged sexual assault kits as examples, this presentation shows how FORESIGHT's "big data" approach can give you the information you need to secure resources to improve your laboratory's performance.

Ropero-Miller, J. and Speaker, P.J. (2019). The Hidden Costs of the Opioid Crisis and the Implications for Financial Management in the Public Sector. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1(1).

Abstract: The November 2017 release of the Council of Economic Advisers' White House report on the opioid crisis suggests that prior consideration of expenses severely underestimated the economic costs of the opioid crisis. When corrected for these losses, the annual cost from the opioid crisis leapt nearly 600%. The cost to the criminal justice system was estimated at $8 Billion of which $270 million is borne by crime laboratories. However, laboratory budgets have not grown at a rate capable of meeting this increased demand for forensic science services. The hidden costs of the opioid crisis borne by the forensic crime laboratories comes as funds are diverted in the laboratory to meet the increased demands for services in drug chemistry and toxicology. Dramatic increases in turnaround times across other areas of investigation continue to grow as the crisis accelerates.

Speaker, P.J. (2019). The Jurisdictional Return on Investment from Processing the Backlog of Untested Sexual Assault Kits. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1(1). 18 – 23.

Abstract: The economic problem for the forensic laboratory is a problem faced in all arenas; limited resources are available to address seemingly unlimited desires. This is as true for entities in the public sector as it is for any private concern. To assist decision-makers in the allocation of those scarce resources, we synthesize existing research on the benefits of additions to the DNA Database and the potential benefits from diverting resources to analysis of the backlog of sexual assault kits. We offer some guidance for the optimum use of limited resources, through the measurement of the return on investment (ROI) at the jurisdictional level (i.e., that is, the net benefits to society relative to the investment itself). These net benefits include those to survivors from a resolution to their assaults, the benefits to others from the prevention of repeated assaults from serial rapists, and the prevention of societal costs external to those directly victimized. Those external costs extend from the effects on friends and family to expenses for preventive measures to anyone aware of sexual assaults. Such metrics surrounding ROI will assist the public sector in the optimal allocation of scarce resources to the justice system by providing a measure of the marginal social welfare improvement from alternative allocations of these scarce resources in light of objectives of public sector entities. The analysis demonstrates that the societal return on investment from the testing of all sexual assault kits ranges from 9,874% to 64,529%, depending on the volume of activity for the laboratory conducting the analysis. There are extreme economies of scale in effect that are suggestive of some policy alternatives.

Speaker, P.J. (2019). The Economic Impact of the Opioid Crisis on Forensic Laboratories and Related Entities. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1(S1). S9-S10.

Abstract: Prior to November 2017, the magnitude of the opioid crisis nationally was estimated to have an annual cost of nearly 0.33% of GDP. However, the release of the White House report (The Council of Economic Advisers, 2017) on the opioid crisis suggests that indirect costs, not previously considered, increase estimates of the annual cost of the crisis by nearly600% to an annual cost of $504 Billion or 2.2% annually of GDP (Florence, Zhou, Luo, & Xu, 2016). When those considerations are examined at the individual state level, the “crisis” states (i.e., the states with the worst per capita overdose deaths) experience a cost approaching 15% of Gross State Product. Those additional societal costs reflect the loss in human life from overdoses beyond the previously considered increases in healthcare costs, substance abuse treatments, and the costs to the criminal justice system.

The White House report offers only a 20,000-foot view of the societal costs from opioid abuse. The costs of medical care, substance abuse treatment, and workplace productivity are based on detailed studies with well-defended estimation procedures. The estimated cost for the criminal jus-tice system includes an estimated cost of roughly $8 Billion (Florence, Zhou, Luo ,& Xu, 2016). However, the foundations for the criminal justice system costs are back-of-the-envelope rough approximations of system-wide costs; they offer little advice at the jurisdictional level to manage scarce resources dealing with the crisis. Further, they provide a static view of the crisis, ignoring the dynamic growing severity of the problem. Not considered in the Council of Economic Advisors estimate of the costs to the criminal justice system are the indirect costs borne by the crime laboratory and ultimately to society, as resources are diverted from other uses to the justice system.

In the present study, we provide a more detailed examination for one aspect of the justice system effects, the forensic science analysis, detailing the direct costs and the opportunity costs elsewhere as resources are diverted to the opioid crisis. We use Project FORESIGHT data(Houck, Riley, Speaker ,& Witt, 2009) combined with Census of Publicly Funded Forensic Crime Laboratories data (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2017) to identify the magnitude of this problem and identify trends with productivity, turnaround time, backlogs, queuing elasticities of demand, and related metrics. The intent is to provide policymakers with a broader view of the societal costs as decisions are made to battle this crisis. The paper is organized as follows. We summarize the White House report, “The Underestimated Cost of the Opioid Crisis,” and the research support upon which the report is based, including the apportionment approach which forms the foundation for the costs to the justice system. The inherent assumptions, behind the allocation of justice system expenditures, do not jibe with experience; but existing research within the justice sector can overcome these deficiencies. Following discussion of the White House report, we provide an overview of data available to estimate costs of forensic laboratories in the justice system. The section that follows pro-vides a brief overview of relevant work in criminal justice support systems and the cost structure, economies of scale, elasticities, and other items relevant for the analysis of the expected costs in updating the apportionment estimations. We show that the broad system-wide estimates may be disaggregated to the jurisdictional level to better address local and national policy. The next section provides a view of time trends nationwide in comparison to the rising costs experienced in jurisdictions most severely impacted by the opioid crisis. While the White House report details a single year, their analysis takes a static view of this dynamic, growing problem. The resources required to address the opioid crisis must be aimed at a moving target, rather than a focus in the rearview mirror. That dynamic target can be estimated. The final section offers some policy implications and concluding comments.

Speaker, P.J. (2019). The Jurisdictional Return on Investment for DNA Database. Forensic Science International: Synergy, 1(S1). S13-S14.

Abstract: In her review of social science research on forensic science, Browning (2015) concludes with the observation that “resources are decreasing. We must keep learning how to be more efficient in using ever-evolving forensics technologies and examining the actual justice outcomes resulting from forensic evidence so that limited resources can be used wisely. ”The economic problem for the forensic laboratory is a problem faced in all areas; limited resources are available to address seemingly unlimited desires. This is as true for entities in the public sector as it is for any private concern. To assist decision-makers in the allocation of those scarce re-sources, we synthesize existing research on the benefits of additions to the DNA Database and the potential benefits from diverting resources to analysis of the backlog of sexual assault kits. Through the measurement of the return on investment (ROI) at the jurisdictional level, we offer some guidance for the optimum use of limited resources. Such metrics will assist the public sector in the optimal allocation of scarce resources to the justice system by providing a measure of the marginal social welfare improvement from alternative allocations of these scarce resources in light of objectives of public sector entities. Similar synthesizing of research has been conducted in other areas; of particular note is the recent review of public health laboratories and their societal impact (Scharff, et al, 2015). These researchers combine the research of public health, medicine, sociology, and economics to find the return on investment in PulseNet, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) early warning system for foodborne illnesses. This review of PulseNet offers policymakers a measure of the success of the investment in this public health program by demonstrating that the program returns the societal benefits of $66.26 for every $1.00 spent. That translates into a net return on investment of 6,526%.

Doleac (2017) in an analysis of the societal impact of the DNA database has demonstrated that a return on investment can be determined on a national level with the result that the social benefit of one additional DNA profile leads to a social welfare savings of over $20,000. Anker, et al (2017) demonstrate that among various crimes, the deterrence effect, and subsequent societal savings, are highest with violent crimes. Wang & Wein (2018) expand the analysis of the benefits of additions to the DNA database with a concentration on the testing of sexual assault kits and estimate societal gains in excess of$130,000. The expenditures for public health and forensics compete with programs for the arts, roads, bridges, and all public works. These all demand the attention of public officials who must apply various techniques to prioritize expenditures. Likewise, within public agencies themselves, decision-makers must make choices in the allocation of limited budget dollars. Metrics, such as return on investment, assist in those decisions.

While ROI is not the only factor of importance, it does have the advantage of being comparable across activities since every net benefit may be translated into a simple percentage return on expenditures. While the PulseNet ROI has both a detailed review of program costs and benefits, the analysis found in Doleac (2017), Anker, et al (2017), and Wang & Wein (2018) concentrate on the detailed examination of the benefits. Both costs and benefits are critical to the determination of ROI. Each of these studies offers detailed modeling and analysis of the benefits to society from laboratory analysis and the associated policing. However, much less detail has been offered in these studies from the associated cost of the laboratory analysis. In one instance, there is a reliance on a rough estimate of the cost of an addition to the DNA database (Doleac, 2017). In another study, there is an attempt at a more detailed representation of the costs (Roman, Reid, Chalfin, & Knight, 2009), but those cost estimates overlook a few key associated expenses.

Fortunately, there is extensive cost information available through Department of Justice projects, FORESIGHT and the Census of Publicly Funded Crime Laboratories (CENSUS). Project FORE-SIGHT data provides a fully-loaded cost of providing that marginal sample both at the national average and the cost for the local jurisdiction (Speaker, 2015). The CENSUS offers data on approximately eighty percent of U.S. crime laboratories. The present study uses the econometric results from the national benefit, combining these with local jurisdictional detail on population, crime rates, and other demographics and applying the economy of scale results from FORESIGHT to estimate the ROI for any jurisdiction. Project FORESIGHT is a business-guided self-evaluation of forensic science laboratories across the globe. The FORESIGHT database includes participating laboratories that represent local, regional, state, and national agencies. Laboratories participating in Project FORESIGHT have developed standardized definitions for metrics to evaluate work processes, linking financial information to work tasks, and functions. Laboratory managers can then assess resource allocations, efficiencies, and value of services.

We apply the econometric analysis from FORESIGHT and combine it with the existing literature for a jurisdictional return on investment metric. The analysis demonstrates that the societal return on investment from additions to the DNA database from all violent crime ranges from 704% to 33,929%, depending on the volume of activity for the laboratory conducting the analysis. There are extreme economies of scale in effect that are suggestive of some policy alternatives. When the analysis is centered on the testing of sexual assault kits, the societal ROI averages7,119%. Again when economies of scale are considered, the societal ROI from the testing of sexual assault kits rises to 13,479%. Those societal gains are static in nature. That is, they reflect the current demand for services from forensic laboratories. We also introduce a dynamic metric regarding the demand for services of the laboratory. This metric, a queuing elasticity of demand, offers an additional policy consideration for policymakers. As more resources are allocated to laboratories in an effort to achieve these societal returns, there will be a reaction in the demand for the laboratory services. More resources are expected to speed up laboratory processing. As the present gap between services desired and budgets are reduced, reductions in turnaround time will be met with increased requests for services that initially will outpace the ability of laboratories to keep up with the increased demand. Long-term planning will have to take these queuing elasticities into account and the allocation of resources will have to consider the dynamic trends for planning to succeed.

Speaker, P.J. (2017). Process Improvement and the Efficient Frontier: Forecasting the Limits to Strategic Change across Crime Laboratory Areas of Investigation. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 8(3-4). 109-127.

Abstract: Undertaking programs for process improvement, such as Lean Six Sigma, permit a laboratory to do more with their limited resources. The Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI) embraced a Lean Six Sigma change process that led to dramatic increases in capacity, while simultaneously reducing turnaround time (TAT) to a fraction of their historical experience. As other laboratories adopt similar process improvement programs, will those laboratories also experience similar results with higher productivity across the laboratory and reduced turnaround time in every area of scientific investigation? We demonstrate that similar success may be expected with a laboratory's current caseload, but the degree of improvement is related to the size of the political jurisdiction, crime rates, and the resulting caseload; and the degree of inefficiencies at the start of the process improvement program. An understanding of the economic forces at play enables laboratory management to better forecast outcomes and plan for the eventualities. Using data from Project FORESIGHT 2015–2016, tables are provided that permit laboratories to match their caseload within each area of investigation to the forensic laboratory standard for efficiency at that caseload.

Houck, Max M. (2017). Strategic leadership through performance management: FORESIGHT as PerformanceStat . Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences , 51(3). 1-11.

Abstract: Unlike the private sector, no single overarching metric exists to evaluate public sector performance. Without concepts such as profit, it can be difficult for government agencies to be accountable to stakeholders. Unless organizations have a clear strategy that holds performance to account, the organization can become pathological and never truly succeed. Momentum has been building towards evidence-based evaluations and management in government, inspired by the use of evidence-based decision-making, made popular by Michael Lewis' book Moneyball. This article presents a platform for adopting the forensic version of 'Moneyball', the FORESIGHT Project, as a strategic tool to set metrics as goals, develop ways to achieve them, and improve the performance of public forensic service providers

McAndrew, William P. (2017). National versus Local Production: Finding the Balance between Fiscal Federalism and Economies of Scale . Public Finance Review, 46(6). 1-23.

Abstract: Public finance and public choice economists have contrasting views on the determinants of public sector size. This article makes a unique contribution to this literature by exploring an integer count of output, rather than the commonly used dollar approximation of output, using data that are homogeneous across the levels of government, where a unit of observation is not a governing body, but rather a service provider. Specifically, this article explores the counteracting effects of fiscal federalism and economies of scale using data from the National Institute of Justice with an application of data envelopment analysis and stochastic frontier analysis. I determine that provision of forensic science services at the national level rather than local level does not lead to higher relative cost, and national production may be relatively more efficient. In general, however, neither locally nor nationally operated laboratories are operating at an efficient scale, a potential argument for privatization, insourcing, or outsourcing.

Kurimski, L. M., Speaker, P., & Bassler, J. R. (2017). Project FORESIGHT and Return on Investment: Forensic Science Laboratories and Public Health Laboratories. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal,8(1-2). 1 - 12.

Abstract: Project FORESIGHT developed business guided metrics for use by forensic science laboratories. Since the introduction of the project nearly a decade ago, much has been learned about the efficiency and effectiveness of the forensic laboratory industry and laboratory management has been forewarned and forearmed as they develop strategic initiatives to deal with the economic problem of limited resources available for a seemingly unlimited demand for services. The success of forensic science laboratories in the application of best practices has not gone unnoticed. Public health laboratories face similar problems and the laboratories in that industry have joined forces through the Association of Public Health Laboratories and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to follow the guidance of Project FORESIGHT and develop business metrics to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of this public sector service. In this paper, the project development process is highlight towards an expanded set of outcomes that offers insight into efficiency and effectiveness and connects that performance to societal outcomes through development of return on investment metrics for the industry.

Speaker, P. (2015). Financial Management of Forensic Science Laboratories: Lessons from Project FORESIGHT 2011-2012 , Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal,6(1-2). 7 - 29.

Abstract: Critical to the decision-making within an individual forensic science laboratory is an understanding of their efficiency and effectiveness. The NIJ-funded project, FORESIGHT, applies financial management techniques to avowed public sector goals and offers a common starting point for the comparison of individual forensic laboratories to the established standards in the industry through a review of financial ratios. Such ratios adjust for size differences and allow insight into several aspects of the operation including evaluation of efficiency, quality, risk, market nuances, and return on investment. This study offers insight into the financial performance, productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness of forensic science laboratories. Using data from the National Institute of Justice’s Project FORESIGHT for 2011-2012, a variety of benchmark performance data is presented with analytical insight into the nature of that performance. The tabular and graphic presentations offer some insight into the current status of the forensic science industry in general and provide a basis by which individual laboratories may begin to assess their own performance with respect to both analytical efficiency and cost effectiveness.

Speaker, P.J. (2015). Forensic Laboratory Financial Management. ASCLD Crime Lab Minute. 1-7.

Abstract: The National Institute of Justice’s Office of Justice Programs has supported laboratories for the last several years with analysis of performance via Project FORESIGHT. Project FORESIGHT has collected data from the 2006 fiscal year, growing from a handful of laboratories to over 100 participating laboratories in the most recently completed fiscal year. There is no cost to participants, and all forensic laboratories are invited to join the program. In return for data submissions, each laboratory receives a customized report comparing their performance in each forensic investigative area to the industry standards obtained from the project.

Houck, M.M., McAndrew, W.P. and Daview, B. (2015). A Review of Forensic Science Management Literature . Forensic Science Review, 27. 53-68.

Abstract: The science in forensic science has received increased scrutiny in recent years, but interest in how forensic science is managed is a relatively new line of research. This paper summarizes the literature in forensic science management generally from 2009 to 2013, with some recent additions, to provide an overview of the growth of topics, results, and improvements in the management of forensic services in the public and private sectors. This review covers only the last three years or so and a version of this paper was originally produced for the 2013 Interpol Forensic Science Managers Symposium and is available at interpol.int.

Lodhi, K., Grier, R., & Speaker, P.J. (2015). A Novel Approach to Forensic Molecular Biology Education and Training: It’s Impact on the Criminal Justice System. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47(2). 182 – 193.

Abstract: The managers of crime laboratories face significant hurdles when preparing new hires to become productive members of the laboratory. New hires require six months of training/experience in the crime laboratory before becoming a productive member of the Biology (DNA) section. To address this deficiency in forensic DNA education, a novel forensic education curriculum was developed and tested for three consecutive years in the forensic science program at Fayetteville State University, Fayetteville, NC. The curriculum used a CTS proficiency kit which is the same kit used to validate the proficiency of forensic scientists in crime laboratories in the US. A cost benefit analysis suggests that training students in a classroom instead of in a crime laboratory provides both direct savings to the laboratory and significant societal savings as more DNA profiles are entered into the database. The societal benefit from the combined reduction in the amount of training in a crime laboratory and increasing the number of DNA database profiles entered into a database suggests a societal saving of $8.28 million for each of these months of reduced training.

Dawley, D.D., Houck, M.M, Gupta, S. (2014). Women, Forensic Science, and STEM: An Initial Inquiry. Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal,5(3-4). 70-75.

Abstract: Despite a wealth of research examining the role of human resources in private organizations, little has been published in the area forensic science. There are indications that women dominate the field, but limited hard demographic data exists to this end. This initial research note is the result of a survey sent to 461 forensic laboratories in the United States. The survey queried working forensic scientists on why they thought others might enter the field and why they stay. Gender differences were also examined in areas of pay and intent. Although underpaid by almost 20% compared with men, women rated salary as a lesser reason for entering forensic science than other more social factors. Regardless of gender, educational opportunities and overall enjoyment of the science rated high on why people would enter and stay in forensic science.

Houck, M.M., & Speaker, P.J. (2014). Forensic Science and the Administration of Justice , " Developing New Business Models for Forensic Laboratories ". In M. Hickman & K. Strom (Eds.). SAGE. Chapter 12, 221-233

Abstract: Forensic service providers inhabit a unique, central place in the criminal justice system. Stakeholders in the forensic enterprise abound, from law enforcement to attorneys to the courts and even the public they all serve. The public orientation of these services and stakeholders necessitates forensic managers rely on providing sound performance at a reasonable cost. Certainly, the laboratory's jurisdiction will judge them on criteria such as accuracy, timeliness, and cost. Too much emphasis on quantitative outcomes, however, can create an imbalance that ignores longer-term issues, such as quality and value. Thus, efficiency, the extent to which time and effort are used to produce the desired outcome, can be mistaken for effectiveness, the attainment of that desired outcome, but they are intimately connected.

McAndrew, W.P., & Speaker, P.J. (2013). Expanding Budgets via Strategic Use of Leasing , Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 3(4). 169-179.

Abstract: An examination of the budgets of forensic laboratories reveals an unused or underused tool at the disposal of forensic laboratories. Equipment leasing offers an opportunity for a unilateral increase in the purchasing power of existing laboratory budgets and an immediate response to austerity measures. Rather than react to budget tightening with reductions in force, shared furloughs, or the forfeiture of unfilled positions, a laboratory director can forestall such measures and even see an effective increase in disposable income through a planned use of operating leases. If a public laboratory makes an equipment purchase, the cost to the laboratory will be the full list price from the equipment supplier. However, when a private laboratory makes the same equipment purchase, it pays the supplier the full list price, but is able to deduct the expense from its income when it calculates its corporate income tax and ends up with a final expense, net of taxes, that is considerably less than the cost to the public laboratory. Leasing offers the opportunity for a private entity to purchase equipment and pass on some of the tax savings to the public laboratory through an operating lease. In this manuscript the leasing gains are explained and accompanied by a detailed example to illustrate the potential magnitudes of the gains. In this example, a representative laboratory is shown to experience nearly a twenty-five percent gain from the lease compared to the expense of a direct purchase.

Dawley, D. (2013). Determinants of Turnover Intentions, Helping, and Knowledge Sharing in Crime Laboratories, Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 19(1). 230.

Abstract: Forensic scientists are knowledge workers and are a laboratory’s single greatest enduring expense. Therefore, it is imperative for forensic managers to find ways to retain employees, share knowledge, and create a cohesive, coherent team perspective. Based on a discussion with a group of FORESIGHT forensic laboratory directors in 2011, four major areas of research interest were identified: (1) reducing employee turnover; (2) increasing employees’ helping behaviors with colleagues; (3) knowledge sharing among employees; and, (4) creating and disseminating a strategic vision to all employees.

Houck, M.M., Henry, J.W. and Speaker, P.J. (2013). Improving the Effectiveness of Forensic Service: Using the Foresight Project as a Platform for Quality Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 19(1). 21.

Abstract: Forensic service providers are—in essence—non-profit, production-oriented organizations staffed largely by knowledge workers. Forensic scientists as knowledge workers take evidence and data and convert them into knowledge in the form of reports and testimony. They specialize in these transactions and, therefore, simplify them for the benefit of the criminal justice system; the investigators or attorneys do not need to find numerous individuals to conduct the specific examinations required for a case. As long as the costs of providing these services externally do not exceed the costs of their internal provision, for example, by a government forensic laboratory, then the organization can prosper. If the government laboratory costs are greater than the cost of finding private laboratories to provide services, then the organization may be reevaluated. Comparatively, non-profit and for-profit organizations are similar in some ways (money is an input for both) yet different (money, in the form of profits, is an output only for the private sector). Non-profits must therefore measure success in other ways, such as “low cost” or “cost effective.” Forensic service providers and their parent organizations use terms such as “cost-effective” vaguely without reference to other disciplines which use these as well-defined technical terms in evaluative phrases or formulae. Despite the great concern and administrative angst over forensic service providers’ “performance” and “capacity,” these metrics go undefined as industry standards.

Speaker, P.J. (2013). Forensic Science Service Provider Models: Data-Driven Support for Better Delivery Options. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 45(4), 398-406.

Abstract: There are a variety of models for the delivery of forensic science analysis in service to the justice system. In answer to the question as to whether there is a ‘best’ option for the delivery of forensic science services, New Zealand’s Institute of Environmental Science and Research (ESR) has been offered as a model which demonstrates a comparative advantage over the delivery of forensic services in more traditional models. The support for that assertion rests in the ability of the ESR to react at the speed of business and avoid bureaucratic drag found too often in the public sector. This efficiency argument addresses one dimension of the search for ‘best’ delivery. The second dimension involves the discovery of the optimal scale of operation to take efficiency and turn it into cost effectiveness.

David Dawley, D. & Timothy P. Munyun. (2012). The Effects of Politics on Job Satisfaction in Crime Lab Employees . Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal . 3(4). 159-164.

Abstract: This study examined the effects of crime lab workers’ perceptions of intra-lab politics on job satisfaction. In addition to finding that political behavior reduces employee job satisfaction, the study also identified ways in which crime lab managers can mitigate the negative effects of political behavior, increasing employee job satisfaction when political behavior is high within a given unit. Data collected from 874 employees at twelve FORESIGHT laboratories suggest that increasing crime lab worker job autonomy, job efficiency, strategic vision, and task significance are especially effective interventions that increase job satisfaction when political behavior is high. We discuss practical implications of these findings for crime lab managers. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how perceived political behavior affects the job satisfaction, or morale, of crime lab workers. The study was motivated by several interactions we had with forensic crime lab managers at the 2013 American Society of Crime Lab Directors (ASCLD) meeting. In ASCLD human resources and FORESIGHT meetings, we received consistent inquiries concerning the potential role of organizational politics as a detrimental factor on employee attitudes. These conversations highlight the unfortunate ubiquity of political behavior at work, including work in crime labs. Organizational politics often create disharmony among employees and can negatively affect employee job satisfaction and other attitudes (Breaux et al. 2009; Ferris et al. 1996). Thus, we sought to explore how political behavior affects the job satisfaction of crime lab employees, and potential managerial strategies that could be useful in mitigating for this potential negative effect.

McAndrew, William P. (2012). Are Forensic Science Services Club Goods? An Analysis of the Optimal Forensic Science Service Delivery Model, Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal, 3(4). 151–158.

Abstract: Forensic science has been described as a public good by practitioners, legal professionals, and scholars, many of whom were suggesting that forensic science is simply something good for the public. It would indeed be difficult to argue otherwise. In an economic sense, the concept of a public good is defined differently from this colloquial meaning, however, leading to confusion in discussions between forensic scientists and business consultants concerning how to evaluate laboratory performance and ultimately consider strategic change from an economic or efficiency perspective. This article discusses what economists mean by a public or private good, with an application using the forensic science industry. Forensic science is likely neither a purely public or purely private good, but rather a club good that contains a degree of both the public and private. When calculated, the degree of publicness of this club good will aid in determining the appropriate institutional framework from which to provide forensic science services, as well as its optimal jurisdiction size and production level.

Dawley, David. (2012). Enhancing Employee Outcomes in Crime Labs: Test of a Model. Forensic Science Policy and Management: An International Journal, 3(3). 105-112.

Abstract: This paper developed and tested a model identifying determinants of employee turnover intentions and desirable performance behaviors, including helping others and engaging in knowledge sharing. Data collected from 798 employees at ten FORESIGHT laboratories suggest that job satisfaction and embeddedness are the primary antecedents of turnover intentions and knowledge sharing, and that embeddedness is a stronger predictor variable of both outcomes. Embeddedness is driven by the employees' understanding of the lab's strategic vision. Moreover, job satisfaction and embeddedness are positively associated with helping behavior. Finally, we identified job autonomy as a primary determinant of job satisfaction. We discuss practical implications of these findings for managers.

Houck, M.M., Speaker, P.J., Fleming, A.S., & Riley, R.A. (2012). The Balanced Scorecard: Sustainable Performance Assessment for Forensic Laboratories. Science & Justice, 52(4). 209-216.

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to introduce the concept of the balanced scorecard into the laboratory management environment. The balanced scorecard is a performance measurement matrix designed to capture financial and non-financial metrics that provide insight into the critical success factors for an organization, effectively aligning organization strategy to key performance objectives. The scorecard helps organizational leaders by providing balance from two perspectives. First, it ensures an appropriate mix of performance metrics from across the organization to achieve operational excellence; thereby the balanced scorecard ensures that no single or limited group of metrics dominates the assessment process, possibly leading to long-term inferior performance. Second, the balanced scorecard helps leaders offset short term performance pressures by giving recognition and weight to long-term laboratory needs that, if not properly addressed, might jeopardize future laboratory performance.

Maguire, C., Houck, M.M., Williams, R., & Speaker, P.J. (2012). Efficiency and the Cost Effective Delivery of Forensic Science Services: In-Sourcing, Out-Sourcing and Privatization. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 3(2), 62-69.

Abstract: Given the recent global recession, many national governments have been forced to implement austerity measures, and the forensic science industry has not been immune from such changes. Proposals to privatize some or all aspects of forensic science services have been bantered about for decades, but the recent economic climate has brought this idea back to the forefront of public debates. Although privatization has been shown to have many benefits in the provision of other goods and services, the idea of privatizing forensic services has been harshly criticized by scholars and practitioners. This paper explores some of those criticisms through the lens of economics, and arguments are offered regarding why market approaches in forensic science may be more successful than might have originally been imagined under certain conditions. On the other hand, recognition of those economic forces and reaction by forensic laboratories to address inefficiencies may provide the effective delivery of forensic services that forestalls privatization efforts.

McAndrew, W.P. (2012). Is Privatization Inevitable for Forensic Science Laboratories? Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 3(1). 42-52.

Newman, J., Dawley, D., & Speaker, P.J. (2012). Strategic Management of Forensic Laboratory Resources: From Project FORESIGHT Metrics to the Development of Action Plans. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 2(4). 164-174.

Abstract: The project FORESIGHT stated objectives begin with the development of metrics applicable to the activity of forensic science laboratories. These metrics enable a laboratory to assess how they fit within the forensic science industry and offer a glance at the levels of performance that they might be able to achieve. FORESIGHT's mission goes on to state the intent for laboratories to use those measurements to "preserve what works, and change what does not" (Houck et al. 2009, p. 85). This paper addresses the strategic implications of those additional aspects of the FORESIGHT mandate with a view of the strategic planning process for a forensic science laboratory. The keys to the development of an ongoing strategic planning and execution process are outlined, and then the actions of one laboratory, Ontario's Centre of Forensic Sciences, are examined to demonstrate the move from metrics to action. While there cannot yet be made a claim of "best practices," this Canadian example offers some guidance to "better practices" in the quest for continual improvement in the provision of forensic science services.

Witt, T.S., & Speaker, P.J. (2012, April). The Power of Information, Forensic Magazine, 1-5.

Abstract: When it comes to cost, the Foresight model was designed to overlook nothing. When we talk about the cost of doing something, we look at everything from equipment, telecommunications, heating, lighting, facility rent … everything. If a participant doesn't have access to the data, we can estimate those costs from other labs in our studies. We come up with an all-inclusive figure that tells participants what it costs to process a case. This leads to informed decisions. Take trace evidence cases, for example. You might find that processing one trace evidence case costs the same as processing two, three, or even four traditional DNA cases. While trace evidence is wonderful and powerful, if DNA alone will get you where you need to be, this cost factor will heavily affect your decision-making process. Foresight is not about cutting where it matters. It's about using resources wisely so that labs can do more and enhance the services they provide. Once you know the key metrics, you can make informed decisions.

Kobus, H., Houck, M.M., Speaker, P.J., Riley, R.A., & Witt, T.S. (2011). Managing Performance in the Forensic Sciences – Expectations in Light of Limited Budgets, Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 2(1), 36 - 43.

Abstract: For forensic service providers worldwide, the demand for high-quality services greatly outpaces available resources to meet those requests. The gap between the demand for services and the resource-restricted supply of those services has implications for managing performance: the effectiveness and efficiency of forensic science. The effectiveness of forensic science is directly related to the quality of the scientific analysis and the timeliness with which that analysis is provided, while efficiency is associated with attempts to minimize costs without negatively impacting quality. An inevitable result of the demand and supply gap is a backlog that results in downstream effects on timeliness, service, and quality. One important strategy to respond to the demand-supply imbalance is continual process improvement. Collaborative benchmarking as a basis for process improvement is another approach. This paper discusses the disjunction between perceived and actual value for forensic services and the rationale for providers to evaluate, improve, and re-tool their processes toward continual improvement given limited resources.

Heames, Joyce T. and Heames, J. Timothy. (2011). Forensic Science Staffing: Creating a Working Formula. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal 2(1). 5-10.

Abstract: The key issue facing forensic labs is "the classic economic problem—how to allocate limited resources with increasing demand for services, while maintaining high quality standards" (Speaker 2009). Employees are the biggest expense and most valuable resource that forensic labs possess, thus the question arises as to how to maximize human resource functions to best allocate resources through personnel. As the search is on to look for better practices to improve the operations as well as technical expertise of labs, human capital management is crucial to that objective. The purpose of this article is to process map some of the staffing issues facing forensic science labs, whether public or private, and to identify metrics from the FORESIGHT study (Houck et al. 2009) that might help lab directors create a working formula to better manage staffing (e.g., recruiting and selection) issues.

Speaker, P.J. (2010). The KPI of CSI: A Business Application in the Public Sector. Journal of the Academy of Business Education Proceedings, 11(1). 1-12.

Abstract: The typical managerial accounting or business finance textbook includes a discussion of the DuPont expansion as a subtopic in the presentation of financial ratios. Such expansions offer a convenient mechanism to decompose return on equity into ratios which highlight profitability, risk, and efficiency measures as an explanation of the overall return. Advanced forms of the DuPont expansion also permit the decomposition of returns into operating returns and financial returns. Unfortunately, over time many of these textbooks have eliminated the step-by-step calculations that lead to the final breakdowns and instead merely offer the final relationship. While this may be acceptable for many applications of the DuPont expansion, it limits the ability of business school graduates to apply the concept to new situations. This oversight is corrected for a particular public entity, the forensic crime laboratory, for which a different return on investment measure must be considered. It is demonstrated that the inclusion of more detail surrounding the basic calculations in accounting and finance textbooks presents a better opportunity for the development of critical thinking skills as managers apply techniques to new sectors for which the different objective functions guide managerial decisions.

Speaker, P.J. (2010). A New Twist on Old Tricks: DuPont Expansions for Public Entities. Journal of the Academy of Business Education Proceedings, 11(1). 1-7.

Speaker, P.J., & Fleming, A.S. (2010). Benchmarking and Budgeting Techniques for Improved Forensic Laboratory Management. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 1(4). 199-208.

Abstract: Forensic laboratories are not immune from downturns in the worldwide economy. Recession and economic slowdowns, when coupled with the public's heightened sense of the capabilities of forensic science, put stress on the effectiveness of forensic laboratories. The resources available to forensic laboratories are limited, and managers are under greater pressure to improve efficiency and effectiveness. To this end, the use of internal and external financial and accounting metrics to plan, control, evaluate, and communicate performance is examined. Using data from the QUADRUPOL and FORESIGHT studies, we illustrate the use of external benchmarking through a calculation of laboratory return on investment and the internal development and use of a budget to enhance laboratory performance in light of limited resources.

Speaker, P.J., & Fleming, A.S. (2009). Monitoring Financial Performance: An Approach for Forensic Crime Labs. CPA Journal, 79(8). 60-65.

Abstract: The pressure to improve performance is felt by managers in every industry. In difficult financial times, it becomes all the more important for managers to seek continuous improvements in the performance of their organizations. Forensic laboratories are not unlike other service organizations in this regard and must continually find ways to improve performance with limited resources. Applying metrics to key areas is a method for gauging success, for recognizing areas for improvement, and for identifying potential risks. Nevertheless, routine accounting practices and standardized cost terms have been slow to permeate this industry. Metrics and budgetary analyses can be helpful, but until recently such calculations were not possible given the lack of fiscal and casework standardization within the forensic laboratory industry. Both auditors and CPA consultants can benefit themselves and the forensic laboratory service industry by using metrics to identify risk areas & improve/communicate performance.

Speaker, P.J. (2009). The Decomposition of Return on Investment for Forensic Laboratories. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 1(2), 96-102.

Abstract: For forensic laboratories, a detailed understanding of return on investment (ROI) is necessary for routine assessment, consideration of new legislative alternatives, and cost-benefit analysis for decision making. Converting performance data to ratio measures provides useful comparisons between an individual laboratory and the standards for excellence for the industry; these measures also permit an evaluation across time. Unfortunately, these same ROI measures are subject to abuse when overemphasis on a single measure leads to unintended consequences. In this paper, the ROI measure is broken down into various parts that can be tracked on a regular basis to reveal how a laboratory achieves its results. The tradeoffs between return and risk, efficiency, analytical process, and market conditions are outlined. The end product is a series of easily monitored metrics that a laboratory director may examine on a regular basis for continuous improvement.

Speaker, P.J. (2009). Key Performance Indicators and Managerial Analysis for Forensic Laboratories. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 1(1). 32-42.

Abstract: Forensic laboratories generate a great deal of data from casework activities across investigative areas, personnel and budget allocations, and corresponding expenditures. This paper investigates ways in which laboratories can make data-driven managerial decisions through the regular extraction of key performance indicators from commonly available data sources. A laboratory's performance indicators can then be compared to peer laboratory performance to search for best practices, determine in-house trends, manage scarce resources, and provide quantitative support for the justification of additional resources.

Houck, M.M., Riley, R.A., Speaker, P.J., & Witt, T.S. (2009). FORESIGHT: A Business Approach to Improving Forensic Science Services. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal, 1(2). 85-95.

Abstract: Managers of scientific laboratories see themselves as scientists first and managers second; consequently, they tend to devalue the managerial aspects of their jobs. Forensic laboratory managers are no different, but the stakes may be much higher given the importance of quality science to the criminal justice system. The need for training and support in forensic laboratory management has been recognized for many years, but little has been done to transition the tools of business to the forensic laboratory environment. FORESIGHT is a business-guided self-evaluation of forensic science laboratories across North America. The participating laboratories represent local, regional, state, and national agencies. Economics, accounting, finance, and forensic faculty provide assistance, guidance, and analysis. The process involves standardizing definitions for metrics to evaluate work processes, linking financial information to work tasks, and functions. Laboratory managers can then assess resource allocations, efficiencies, and value of services—the mission is to measure, preserve what works, and change what does not. A project of this magnitude for forensic laboratories has not been carried out anywhere.